Jul 27, 2017 - Herbert Schildt is a leading authority on C#, C++, C, and Java.His programming books have sold millions of copies worldwideand have been. Welcome to this C# Tutorial, currently consisting of 87 articles covering all the. Can be used without reading the previous chapters, some of them may reference.
1 C# 4.0: The Complete Reference Herbert Schildt Mc Graw Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
2 Contents Special Thanks Preface xxi xxiii Part 1 The C# Language 1 The Creation of C# C#'s Family Tree С: The Beginning of the Modern Age of Programming The Creation of OOP and C++ The Internet and Java Emerge The Creation of C# The Evolution of C# How C# Relates to the.net Framework What Is the.net Framework? How the Common Language Runtime Works Managed vs. Unmanaged Code The Common Language Specification 2 An Overview of C# Object-Oriented Programming Encapsulation Polymorphism Inheritance A First Simple Program Using csc.exe, the C# Command-Line Compiler Using the Visual Studio IDE The First Sample Program, Line by Line Handling Syntax Errors A Small Variation A Second Simple Program Another Data Type Two Control Statements The if Statement The for Loop Using Code Blocks Semicolons, Positioning, and Indentation The C# Keywords Identifiers The.NET Framework Class Library vii
3 C# 4.0: The Complete Reference 3 Data Types, Literals, and Variables 37 Why Data Types Are Important 37 C#'s Value Types 37 Integers 38 Floating-Point Types 40 The decimal Type 42 Characters 43 The bool Type 44 Some Output Options 45 Literals 48 Hexadecimal Literals 49 Character Escape Sequences 49 String Literals 50 A Closer Look at Variables 51 Initializing a Variable 52 Dynamic Initialization 52 Implicitly Typed Variables 53 The Scope and Lifetime of Variables 54 Type Conversion and Casting 57 Automatic Conversions 57 Casting Incompatible Types 58 Type Conversion in Expressions 61 Using Casts in Expressions 62 4 Operators 65 Arithmetic Operators 65 Increment and Decrement 66 Relational and Logical Operators 69 Short-Circuit Logical Operators 72 The Assignment Operator 73 Compound Assignments 74 The Bitwise Operators 75 The Bitwise AND, OR, XOR, and NOT Operators 75 The Shift Operators 81 Bitwise Compound Assignments 83 The? Operator 84 Spacing and Parentheses 85 Operator Precedence 86 5 Program Control Statements 87 The if Statement 87 Nested ifs 88 The if-else-if Ladder 89 The switch Statement 90 Nested switch Statements 94
4 Contents ix The for Loop 94 Some Variations on the for Loop 96 The while Loop 101 The do-while Loop 103 The foreach Loop 104 Using break to Exit a Loop 104 Using continue 106 return 107 The goto Introducing Classes and Objects Ill Class Fundamentals Ill The General Form of a Class Ill Define a Class 112 How Objects Are Created 116 Reference Variables and Assignment 117 Methods 118 Add a Method to the Building Class 119 Return from a Method 121 Return a Value 122 Use Parameters 124 Add a Parameterized Method to Building 127 Avoiding Unreachable Code 128 Constructors 128 Parameterized Constructors 130 Add a Constructor to the Building Class 131 The new Operator Revisited 132 Using new with Value Types 132 Garbage Collection and Destructors 133 Destructors 133 The this Keyword Arrays and Strings 139 Arrays 139 One-Dimensional Arrays 139 Multidimensional Arrays 143 Two-Dimensional Arrays 143 Arrays of Three or More Dimensions 144 Initializing Multidimensional Arrays 145 Jagged Arrays 146 Assigning Array References 148 Using the Length Property 150 Using Length with Jagged Arrays 152 Implicitly Typed Arrays 153 The foreach Loop 154
5 X C# 4.0: The Complete Reference Strings 158 Constructing Strings 158 Operating on Strings 159 Arrays of Strings 163 Strings Are Immutable 165 Strings Can Be Used in switch Statements A Closer Look at Methods and Classes 167 Controlling Access to Class Members 167 C#'s Access Modifiers 167 Applying Public and Private Access 169 Controlling Access: A Case Study 170 Pass References to Methods 174 How Arguments Are Passed 176 Use ref and out Parameters 178 Use ref 179 Use out 180 Use ref and out on References 183 Use a Variable Number of Arguments 184 Return Objects 187 Return an Array 189 Method Overloading 190 Overload Constructors 196 Invoke an Overloaded Constructor Through this 199 Object Initializers 201 Optional Arguments 202 Optional Arguments vs. Overloading 204 Optional Arguments and Ambiguity 204 A Practical Example of Optional Arguments 205 Named Arguments 206 The Main() Method 208 Return Values from Main() 208 Pass Arguments to Main() 208 Recursion 210 Understanding static 213 Static Constructors 218 Static Classes Operator Overloading 221 Operator Overloading Fundamentals 221 Overloading Binary Operators 222 Overloading Unary Operators 224 Handling Operations on C# Built-in Types 228 Overloading the Relational Operators 232 Overloading true and false 234
6 Contents xi Overloading the Logical Operators 237 A Simple Approach to Overloading the Logical Operators 237 Enabling the Short-Circuit Operators 239 Conversion Operators 243 Operator Overloading Tips and Restrictions 247 Another Example of Operator Overloading Indexers and Properties 253 Indexers 253 Creating One-Dimensional Indexers 253 Indexers Can Be Overloaded 257 Indexers Do Not Require an Underlying Array 259 Multidimensional Indexers 260 Properties 262 Auto-Implemented Properties 267 Use Object Initializers with Properties 268 Property Restrictions 269 Use Access Modifiers with Accessors 269 Using Indexers and Properties Inheritance 277 Inheritance Basics 277 Member Access and Inheritance 280 Using Protected Access 283 Constructors and Inheritance 284 Calling Base Class Constructors 286 Inheritance and Name Hiding 290 Using base to Access a Hidden Name 291 Creating a Multilevel Hierarchy 293 When Are Constructors Called? 296 Base Class References and Derived Objects 297 Virtual Methods and Overriding 302 Why Overridden Methods? 305 Applying Virtual Methods 306 Using Abstract Classes 309 Using sealed to Prevent Inheritance 313 The object Class 313 Boxing and Unboxing 315 Is object a Universal Data Type? Interfaces, Structures, and Enumerations 319 Interfaces 319 Implementing Interfaces 320 Using Interface References 324 Interface Properties 326 Interface Indexers 328
7 XÜ C# 4.0: The Complete Reference Interfaces Can Be Inherited 330 Name Hiding with Interface Inheritance 331 Explicit Implementations 331 Choosing Between an Interface and an Abstract Class 334 The.NET Standard Interfaces 334 Structures 334 Why Structures? 338 Enumerations 340 Initialize an Enumeration 341 Specify the Underlying Type of an Enumeration 342 Use Enumerations Exception Handling 345 The System.Exception Class 345 Exception-Handling Fundamentals 346 Using try and catch 346 A Simple Exception Example 346 A Second Exception Example 348 The Consequences of an Uncaught Exception 349 Exceptions Let You Handle Errors Gracefully 351 Using Multiple catch Clauses 352 Catching All Exceptions 353 Nesting try Blocks 354 Throwing an Exception 355 Rethrowing an Exception 356 Using finally 357 A Closer Look at the Exception Class 359 Commonly Used Exceptions 360 Deriving Exception Classes 362 Catching Derived Class Exceptions 366 Using checked and unchecked Using I/O 371 C#'s I/O Is Built Upon Streams 371 Byte Streams and Character Streams 371 The Predefined Streams 371 The Stream Classes 372 The Stream Class 372 The Byte Stream Classes 373 The Character Stream Wrapper Classes 374 Binary Streams 375 Console I/O 375 Reading Console Input 375 Using ReadKey() 377 Writing Console Output 379
8 Contents xüi FileStream and Byte-Oriented File I/O 380 Opening and Closing a File 380 Reading Bytes from a FileStream 382 Writing to a File 384 Using FileStream to Copy a File 386 Character-Based File I/O 387 Using Stream Writer 387 Using a StreamReader 389 Redirecting the Standard Streams 390 Reading and Writing Binary Data 392 BinaryWriter 392 BinaryReader 392 Demonstrating Binary I/O 394 Random Access Files 398 Using MemoryStream 400 Using StringReader and StringWriter 402 The File Class 404 Using Copy() to Copy a File 404 Using Exists() and GetLastAccessTime() 405 Converting Numeric Strings to Their Internal Representation Delegates, Events, and Lambda Expressions 411 Delegates 411 Delegate Method Group Conversion 414 Using Instance Methods as Delegates 414 Multicasting 416 Covariance and Contravariance 418 System.Delegate 420 Why Delegates 420 Anonymous Functions 420 Anonymous Methods 421 Pass Arguments to an Anonymous Method 422 Return a Value from an Anonymous Method 422 Use Outer Variables with Anonymous Methods 424 Lambda Expressions 425 The Lambda Operator 425 Expression Lambdas 426 Statement Lambdas 428 Events 431 A Multicast Event Example 433 Instance Methods vs. Static Methods as Event Handlers 434 Using Event Accessors 436 Miscellaneous Event Features 441 Use Anonymous Methods and Lambda Expressions with Events 441
9 XJV C# 4.0: The Complete Reference.NET Event Guidelines 442 Use EventHandler<TEventArgs> and EventHandler 444 Applying Events: A Case Study Namespaces, the Preprocessor, and Assemblies 449 Namespaces 449 Declaring a Namespace 450 Namespaces Prevent Name Conflicts 452 using 453 A Second Form of using 455 Namespaces Are Additive 456 Namespaces Can Be Nested 458 The Global Namespace 459 Using the :: Namespace Alias Qualifier 459 The Preprocessor 463 #define 464 #if and #endif 464 #else and #elif 466 #undef 467 #error 468 #warning 468 #line 468 #region and #endregion 468 #pragma 469 Assemblies and the internal Access Modifier 469 The internal Access Modifier Runtime Type ID, Reflection, and Attributes 471 Runtime Type Identification 471 Testing a Type with is 471 Using as 472 Using typeof 474 Reflection 475 The Reflection Core: System.Type 475 Using Reflection 477 Obtaining Information About Methods 477 Calling Methods Using Reflection 481 Obtaining a Type's Constructors 483 Obtaining Types from Assemblies 487 Fully Automating Type Discovery 493 Attributes 495 Attribute Basics 495 Positional vs. Named Parameters 499 Three Built-in Attributes 503 AttributeUsage 503 The Conditional Attribute 503 The Obsolete Attribute 505
10 Contents XV 18 Generics 507 What Are Generics? 507 A Simple Generics Example 508 Generic Types Differ Based on Their Type Arguments 511 How Generics Improve Type Safety 511 A Generic Class with Two Type Parameters 514 The General Form of a Generic Class 515 Constrained Types 515 Using a Base Class Constraint 516 Using an Interface Constraint 524 Using the new() Constructor Constraint 528 The Reference Type and Value Type Constraints 529 Using a Constraint to Establish a Relationship Between Two Type Parameters 532 Using Multiple Constraints 533 Creating a Default Value of a Type Parameter 534 Generic Structures 535 Creating a Generic Method 536 Using Explicit Type Arguments to Call a Generic Method 539 Using a Constraint with a Generic Method 539 Generic Delegates 539 Generic Interfaces 541 Comparing Instances of a Type Parameter 544 Generic Class Hierarchies 548 Using a Generic Base Class 549 A Generic Derived Class 551 Overriding Virtual Methods in a Generic Class 552 Overloading Methods That Use Type Parameters 553 Covariance and Contravariance in Generic Type Parameters 555 Using Covariance in a Generic Interface 555 Using Contravariance in a Generic Interface 558 Variant Delegates 561 How Generic Types Are Instantiated 563 Some Generic Restrictions 564 Final Thoughts on Generics LINQ 565 LINQ Fundamentals 566 A Simple Query 566 A Query Can Be Executed More Than Once 568 How the Data Types in a Query Relate 569 The General Form of a Query 570 Filter Values with where 571 Sort Results with orderby 572 A Closer Look at select 576 Use Nested from Clauses 580
11 Xvi C# 4.0: The Complete Reference Group Results with group 581 Use into to Create a Continuation 583 Use let to Create a Variable in a Query 585 Join Two Sequences with join 586 Anonymous Types 589 Create a Group Join 591 The Query Methods 594 The Basic Query Methods 594 Create Queries by Using the Query Methods 595 Query Syntax vs. Query Methods 597 More Query-Related Extension Methods 597 Deferred vs. Immediate Query Execution 600 Expression Trees 601 Extension Methods 602 PLINQ Unsafe Code, Pointers, Nullable Types, Dynamic Types, and Miscellaneous Topics 605 Unsafe Code 605 Pointer Basics 606 Using unsafe 607 Using fixed 608 Accessing Structure Members Through a Pointer 609 Pointer Arithmetic 609 Pointer Comparisons 611 Pointers and Arrays 611 Pointers and Strings 613 Multiple Indirection 614 Arrays of Pointers 615 stackalloc 616 Creating Fixed-Size Buffers 616 Nullable Types 618 Nullable Basics 618 Nullable Objects in Expressions 620 The?? Operator 621 Nullable Objects and the Relational and Logical Operators 622 Partial Types 623 Partial Methods 624 Create a Dynamic Type with dynamic 625 COM Interoperability 629 Friend Assemblies 630 Miscellaneous Keywords 630 lock 630 readonly 631
12 Contents XVÜ const and volatile 632 The using Statement 632 extern 633 Part (1 Exploring the C# Library 21 Exploring the System Namespace 639 The Members of System 639 The Math Class 641 The.NET Structures Corresponding to the Built-in Value Types 646 The Integer Structures 647 The Floating-Point Structures 649 Decimal 652 Char 657 The Boolean Structure 662 The Array Class 663 Sorting and Searching Arrays 672 Reversing an Array 675 Copying an Array 676 Using a Predicate 677 Using an Action 678 BitConverter 680 Generating Random Numbers with Random 681 Memory Management and the GC Class 682 Object 684 Tuple 685 The IComparable and IComparable<T> Interfaces 685 The IEquatable<T> Interface 686 The IConvertible Interface 686 The ICloneable Interface 686 IFormatProvider and IFormattable 688 IObservable<T> and IObserver<T> Strings and Formatting 691 Strings in C# 691 The String Class 692 The String Constructors 692 The String Field, Indexer, and Property 693 The String Operators 693 The String Methods 693 Padding and Trimming Strings 711 Inserting, Removing, and Replacing 713 Changing Case 714 Using the Substring() Method 714 The String Extension Methods 715
13 XVÜi C# 4.0: The Complete Reference Formatting 715 Formatting Overview 715 The Numeric Format Specifiers 716 Understanding Argument Numbers 718 Using String.Format() and ToString() to Format Data 719 Using String.Format() to Format Values 719 Using ToString() to Format Data 721 Creating a Custom Numeric Format 722 The Custom Format Placeholder Characters 722 Formatting Date and Time 726 Creating a Custom Date and Time Format 728 Formatting Time Spans 730 Formatting Enumerations Multithreaded Programming, Part One 735 Multithreading Fundamentals 736 The Thread Class 737 Creating and Starting a Thread 737 Some Simple Improvements 739 Creating Multiple Threads 740 Determining When a Thread Ends 742 Passing an Argument to a Thread 745 The IsBackground Property 747 Thread Priorities 747 Synchronization 750 An Alternative Approach 754 The Monitor Class and lock 755 Thread Communication Using Wait(), Pulse(), and PulseAll() 756 An Example That Uses Wait() and Pulse() 756 Deadlock and Race Conditions 760 Using MethodlmplAttribute 760 Using a Mutex and a Semaphore 762 The Mutex 762 The Semaphore 766 Using Events 769 The Interlocked Class 772 Synchronization Classes Added by.net Terminating a Thread Via Abort() 774 An Abort() Alternative 775 Canceling Abort() 777 Suspending and Resuming a Thread 778 Determining a Thread's State 779 Using the Main Thread 779 Additional Multithreading Features Added by.net Multithreading Tips 781 Starting a Separate Task 781
14 Contents xix 24 Multithreading, Part Two: Exploring the Task Parallel Library and PLINQ 783 Two Approaches to Parallel Programming 784 The Task Class 784 Creating a Task 784 Use a Task ID 787 Using Wait Methods 789 Calling Dispose() 791 Using TaskFactory to Start a Task 792 Use a Lambda Expression as a Task 792 Create a Task Continuation 794 Returning a Value from a Task 796 Cancelling a Task and Using AggregateException 798 Some Other Task Features 801 The Parallel Class 801 Parallelizing Tasks via Invoke() 802 Using the For() Method 804 Using the ForEach() Method 810 Exploring PLINQ 812 ParallelEnumerable 812 Parallelizing a Query with AsParallel() 812 Using AsOrdered() 814 Cancelling a Parallel Query 814 Other PLINQ Features 816 PLINQ Efficiency Concerns Collections, Enumerators, and Iterators 817 Collections Overview 817 The Non-Generic Collections 818 The Non-Generic Interfaces 819 The DictionaryEntry Structure 823 The Non-Generic Collection Classes 824 Storing Bits with BitArray 840 The Specialized Collections 843 The Generic Collections 843 The Generic Interfaces 844 The KeyValuePair<TKey, TValue> Structure 848 The Generic Collection Classes 848 The Concurrent Collections 869 Storing User-Defined Classes in Collections 873 Implementing IComparable 875 Implementing IComparable for Non-Generic Collections 875 Implementing IComparable<T> for Generic Collections 877 Using an IComparer 878 Using a Non-Generic IComparer 879 Using a Generic IComparer<T> 880
15 XX C# 4.0: The Complete Reference Using StringComparer 881 Accessing a Collection via an Enumerator 882 Using an Enumerator 883 Using IDictionaryEnumerator 884 Implementing IEnumerable and IEnumerator 885 Using Iterators 887 Stopping an Iterator 889 Using Multiple yield Directives 890 Creating a Named Iterator 890 Creating a Generic Iterator 892 Collection Initializers Networking Through the Internet Using System.Net 895 The System.Net Members 895 Uniform Resource Identifiers 897 Internet Access Fundamentals 898 WebRequest 899 WebResponse 900 Http WebRequest and Http WebResponse 901 A Simple First Example 901 Handling Network Errors 904 Exceptions Generated by Create() 904 Exceptions Generated by GetReponse() 905 Exceptions Generated by GetResponseStream() 905 Using Exception Handling 905 The URI Class 907 Accessing Additional HTTP Response Information 908 Accessing the Header 908 Accessing Cookies 910 Using the LastModified Property 912 MiniCrawler: A Case Study 913 Using WebClient 916 A Documentation Comment Quick Reference 921 The XML Comment Tags 921 Compiling Documentation Comments 922 An XML Documentation Example 923 Index 925
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